History of Plasma Matter

Plasma, often referred to as the fourth state of matter, has a history rooted in the scientific curiosities of the late 19th century. In 1879, when physicist Sir William Crookes, working with cathode ray tubes, observed a peculiar glow, he termed it "radiant matter." He boldly hypothesized that he had discovered a new state of matter beyond solid, liquid, and gas. While his hypothesis was insightful, the true nature of this radiant matter remained unclear. The critical breakthrough came in 1897 when J.J. Thomson, through his own cathode ray experiments, identified the electron, a negatively charged particle far smaller than an atom. Thomson’s discovery provided the fundamental component needed to understand this electrified gas.

Building on this foundation, American chemist and physicist Irving Langmuir coined the term "plasma" in 1928. He was studying how ionized gases behave and noted that the vibrating electrons and ions acted as a cohesive, interconnected whole, much like the way red and white blood cells are carried in blood plasma. Langmuir’s term captured the essence of this state: a quasi-neutral, electrically conductive gas composed of ions, electrons, and neutral particles that exhibits collective behavior. Early explorations into artificially created plasma led to technologies like neon lighting, but one of plasma's first practical uses predates even its formal identification. In 1857, Werner von Siemens invented an ozone generator that used an electrical discharge—a form of plasma—to purify water, marking an early milestone in plasma technology.

For much of the 20th century, research and applications centered on thermal (hot) plasma. Characterized by extremely high temperatures and densities, thermal plasmas are found in nature within stars like our Sun, where they fuel nuclear fusion. On Earth, scientists harness these intense conditions for demanding industrial processes, including semiconductor manufacturing, arc welding, and waste vitrification. This form of plasma remains a cornerstone of research into creating sustainable fusion energy.

In recent decades, a paradigm shift has expanded plasma's technological horizons with the development of non-thermal (cold and warm) plasma. In a cold plasma, the electrons are highly energetic, but the heavier ions and neutral atoms remain near room temperature. This crucial difference allows it to be used on heat-sensitive materials and living tissue without causing thermal damage. This innovation has unlocked a host of revolutionary applications in fields, including medicine for sterilizing equipment and treating wounds, in agriculture for boosting seed germination, and in environmental science for breaking down pollutants.

From a mysterious glow in a vacuum tube to a cornerstone of modern industry and medicine, plasma has evolved from a scientific puzzle into one of our most versatile and powerful technological tools.

Key Figures in the Discovery of Plasma Matter

Sir William Crookes (1879)

In 1879, Sir William Crookes conducted groundbreaking experiments with cathode rays, where he observed a phenomenon he described as "radiant matter." This marked the first documented identification of what we now understand as a distinct state of matter, later recognized as plasma—a highly ionized gas consisting of charged particles. Crookes' experiments laid the foundation for subsequent investigations into plasma physics, pioneering an area that would prove critical to understanding phenomena in both laboratory settings and the broader universe.

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Photo of J.J. Thomson, inventor credited with identifying "radiant matter" as a mixture of ions and

J.J. Thomson (1897)

Sir William Crookes (1879)

In 1897, J.J. Thomson conducted groundbreaking experiments on cathode rays, leading to the identification of what he described as "radiant matter." Through his research, he demonstrated that cathode rays were composed of charged particles, specifically electrons and ions. This discovery highlighted the electrically charged nature of these particles and marked a pivotal step in the foundation of plasma physics. Thomson's work established the essential concept of charged particle interactions in ionized gases, which would later become central to the study of plasma, a state of matter where ions and electrons coexist in a dynamic, electrically conductive medium.

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Irving Langmuir officially introduced the term "plasma".

Irving Langmuir (1928)

Sir William Crookes (1879)

Irving Langmuir (1928)

Irving Langmuir officially introduced the term "plasma" in 1928 to describe ionized gas, drawing an analogy to blood plasma due to its dynamic, fluid-like behavior and ability to carry and sustain embedded particles, much like blood plasma carries cells. Langmuir's characterization emphasized the interconnected and collective nature of the charged particles within ionized gas, a foundational concept in plasma physics. Early experimental research in plasma physics, much of which Langmuir contributed to, involved studying the luminous phenomena observed in evacuated glass tubes. These experiments not only deepened the understanding of plasma behavior but also paved the way for practical applications, including the development of neon lights and other plasma-based lighting technologies.

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Werner von Siemens, first manufacturer of the ozone generator

W. von Siemens (1857)

Irving Langmuir (1928)

Werner von Siemens is credited with pioneering one of the earliest technical applications of plasma in 1857 through his invention of the ozone generator. This device utilized electrical discharges to produce ozone from atmospheric oxygen. Interestingly, at the time, the scientific understanding of plasma as a distinct state of matter had yet to emerge. While Siemens himself may not have been aware that he was working with what we now classify as plasma, his invention hinted at the underlying principles of ionization and energetic particle interactions. The creation of the ozone generator by Siemens provides an early example of humans unknowingly harnessing plasma processes, decades before the term "plasma" was formally introduced by Irving Langmuir in the 1920s to describe ionized gases.

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Plasma: From Industrial Applications to Delicate Tools

Once scientists identified plasma as the fourth state of matter, the next great challenge was to create and control it. This effort transformed plasma from a subject of cosmic curiosity into a powerful and versatile technological tool. The journey of innovation has largely followed two distinct paths, defined by the plasma's temperature and energy characteristics: thermal (hot) plasma and non-thermal (cold and warm) plasma.

The Era of Hot Plasma: Concentrated Energy and Industrial Might

Early research and industrial applications focused on harnessing thermal, or hot, plasmas. In these plasmas, the electrons, ions, and neutral gas particles reach thermal equilibrium at incredibly high temperatures, often ranging from thousands to millions of degrees Celsius. This immense thermal energy makes hot plasma the ideal tool for tasks that demand intense, concentrated power. Engineers first developed plasma torches for welding and cutting, where a superheated jet of plasma could melt and sever thick metals with unparalleled speed and precision. In the quest for clean energy, physicists utilize powerful magnetic fields to confine hot plasmas in fusion reactors, aiming to replicate the conditions found inside a star to generate limitless power. The semiconductor industry also adopted hot plasma processes, using energetic plasma to etch the microscopic circuits and pathways onto silicon wafers, a foundational technique for manufacturing every modern computer chip.

The New Frontier: The Precision of Cold Plasma

A new frontier emerged in the latter half of the 20th century with the development of non-thermal, or cold plasmas. The defining characteristic of cold plasma is its state of non-equilibrium: while its free electrons are highly energized (possessing a very high temperature), the bulk of the plasma, including its ions and neutral atoms, remains at or near room temperature. This unique property allows scientists to leverage the potent chemical reactivity of plasma without the destructive, high-temperature effects. This breakthrough opened the door to a host of applications involving heat-sensitive materials, including living tissue. In medicine, researchers have developed cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) devices that can sterilize medical instruments and even treat skin diseases or disinfect wounds directly without harming the patient. Environmental scientists use cold plasma to neutralize pollutants in air and water, breaking down toxic compounds into harmless substances. In agriculture, plasma treatment can sterilize seeds to boost germination and decontaminate produce to extend its shelf life.

A Spectrum of Possibilities

The evolution from high-temperature industrial processes to low-temperature biomedical and environmental solutions showcases plasma's remarkable adaptability. This progression from brute force to precise control reflects a maturing understanding of how to engineer matter at its most energetic state. From the foundational work on hot plasmas that powered heavy industry to the nuanced control of cold plasmas that enables delicate biological interactions, the field continues to expand. These advancements in creating and applying artificial plasma continue to redefine what is possible, setting the stage for future innovations across every sector of science and industry.

Late 19th Century (1879-1897) – Early Discoveries

Early 20th Century (1900-1949) – Foundational Research

• 1879 - Sir William Crookes identifies "radiant matter" in vacuum tubes, later understood as plasma.[1]

• 1897 - J.J. Thomson conducts experiments with cathode ray tubes, leading to the discovery of the electron and the nature of ionized gases.[2]

[1] Plasmas Physics

[2] J.J. Thomson

Early 20th Century (1900-1949) – Foundational Research

• 1905 - Pollock and Barraclough analyze the pinch effect in lightning-struck metals, an early plasma confinement phenomenon.[1]

• 1923 - Irving Langmuir and Lewi Tonks identified high-frequency electron density oscillations in plasmas, termed Langmuir waves.[2]

• 1928 - Irving Langmuir coined the term "plasma" to describe ionized gases, drawing an analogy to blood plasma. [3]

• 1934 - Willard Harrison Bennett formulated the Bennett relation, essential for plasma confinement studies.[1]

• 1937 - Hannes Alfvén proposed that cosmic plasmas could generate galactic magnetic fields. [4]

• 1942 - Hannes Alfvén predicted Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves, explaining plasma behavior in magnetic fields. [5]

• 1946 - Lev Landau formulated plasma kinetic theory and introduced Landau damping. [6]

[1] Pinch (plasma physics)

[2] Irving Langmuir

[3] Plasma Physics

[4] Hannes Alfven

[5] Timeline of states of matter and phase transitions

[6] Lev Landau Damping

1950s – Initiation of Controlled Fusion Research

Early 20th Century (1900-1949) – Foundational Research

1950s – Initiation of Controlled Fusion Research

• 1950 - Soviet physicists Andrei Sakharov and Igor Tamm propose the tokamak concept for controlled fusion.[1]

• 1951 - Lyman Spitzer designs the stellarator, an alternative fusion confinement device.[2]

• 1954 - Martin David Kruskal and Martin Schwarzschild identified key plasma instabilities affecting magnetic confinement. [3]

• 1956 - Igor Kurchatov highlighted progress in Soviet fusion and plasma instability research. [4]

• 1958 - First controlled thermonuclear fusion reaction achieved in Scylla I at Los Alamos National Laboratory. [1]

• 1958 - James Van Allen discovered Earth's radiation belts, advancing space plasma physics. [5]

[1] Fusion Power

[2] PPPL

[3] History of nuclear fusion

[4] Lecture of I.V. Kurchatov at Harwell

[5] Van Allen Radiation Belts

1960s – Early Plasma Devices and Applications

1980s – Major Fusion Progress and Emerging Applications

1950s – Initiation of Controlled Fusion Research

• 1960 - John Nuckolls proposed using lasers for rapid compression and heating in fusion research. [1]

• 1962 - Philo Farnsworth and Robert L. Hirsch developed a fusion device using inertial electrostatic confinement.[2]

• 1964 - John H. Malmberg and Charles Wharton conducted the first experimental measurement of Landau damping in plasma waves. [3]

• 1968 - Soviet T-3 tokamak achieves record plasma confinement, shifting global fusion research toward tokamaks. [4]

• 1969 - "The Culham Five" (UK Team) confirmed Soviet tokamak performance, spurring global interest. [5]

[1] History of nuclear fusion

[2] Inertial Electrostatic Confinement

[3] John H. Malmberg

[4] Fusion Power

[5] Tokamak de Fontenay-aux-Roses

1970s – Expansion into Fusion and Industrial Uses

1980s – Major Fusion Progress and Emerging Applications

• 1970 - Hannes Alfvén was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to magnetohydrodynamics in plasma physics. [1]

• 1972 - John Nuckolls proposed the concept of fusion ignition, leading to advancements in inertial confinement fusion research. [2]

• 1973 - Introduction of plasma display panels for television and monitors. [3]

• 1973 - Design Work on Joint European Torus (JET) begins. [4]

• 1974 - J.B. Taylor introduced the reversed field pinch concept in plasma confinement research. [4]

• 1975 - Princeton Large Torus (PLT) starts operation, leading to advances in ion heating methods. [5]

• 1977 - Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory completed the Shiva laser, advancing inertial confinement fusion research.[4]

• 1978 - PLT reaches 60 million degrees Celsius, setting a world record. [6]

[1] Nobel Prize in Physics 1970

[2] History of nuclear fusion

[3] Plasma Display

[4] Timeline of Nuclear Fusion

[5] PLT

[6] PPPL Tokamak

1980s – Major Fusion Progress and Emerging Applications

• 1980 - Soviet scientists achieved conical target fusion using deuterium-filled metal projectiles. [1]
• 1982 - Researchers at ASDEX Tokamak, Germany, identified H-mode in tokamaks, enhancing plasma confinement and stability. [1]
• 1983 - IBM introduces a plasma display model for computing, marking the beginning of commercial plasma screen technology. [2]
• 1983 - Joint European Torus (JET) achieves first plasma, advancing collaborative fusion research. [1]
• 1984 - Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory completed the NOVA laser, advancing inertial confinement fusion research. [1]
• 1985 - Initiation of International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) design, a major international fusion collaboration.[1]
• 1987 - Bruno Coppi is recognized for significant contributions to fusion research. [3]
• 1989 - Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons claimed the achievement of cold fusion at room temperature, later disputed. [1]

[1] Timeline of Nuclear Fusion

[2] Plasma Display

[3] James Clerk Maxwell Prize for Plasma Physics

1990s – Advances in Fusion and Medical Applications

2010s – Expansion in Fusion, Medicine, and Sustainability

1990s – Advances in Fusion and Medical Applications

• 1991 - Joint European Torus (JET) achieves the world's first controlled deuterium-tritium fusion reaction. [1]

• 1993 - The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) achieved 10 MW fusion power using a deuterium-tritium mix. [2]
• 1995 - Francis F. Chen advances helicon plasma sources, which are crucial for semiconductor processing.
• 1997 - Tore Supra Facility, France, sustained plasma for two minutes with a non-inductive current drive. [3]
• 1997 - JET sets a fusion power record of 16MW, demonstrating near-breakeven conditions. [3]
• 1998 - Dr. Nikolay Suslov patents the first plasma surgical device for coagulation and sterilization in medical applications.
• 1999 - T.C. Killian et al. first creation of ultracold neutral plasma via photoionization of laser-cooled atoms. [4]

[1] Fusion Power

[2] History of nuclear fusion

[3] Timeline of Nuclear Fusion

[4] Creation of an Ultracold Neutral Plasma

2000s – Large-Scale Plasma Applications

2010s – Expansion in Fusion, Medicine, and Sustainability

1990s – Advances in Fusion and Medical Applications

• 2000 - Franklin Chang-Díaz development of VASIMR, an adjustable electromagnetic thruster for spacecraft propulsion.[1]

• 2002 - China became a member of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project, enhancing international fusion research collaboration. [2]
• 2005 - Polywell fusion research gains traction, exploring electrostatic confinement for nuclear fusion.
• 2005 - Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE) proposed the fast ignition method to enhance inertial confinement fusion efficiency.[2]
• 2005 - Researchers develop the plasma pencil, capable of generating a plume of low-temperature plasma for medical applications.
• 2006 - Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences pioneered fully superconducting tokamak technology. [2]
• 2008 - Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE) completion of Omega EP laser system, advancing fast ignition fusion research.[2]
• 2009 -National Ignition Facility (NIF) becomes operational, aiming for fusion ignition with the world's most powerful laser. [2]

[1] List of Plasma Physicists

[2] History of nuclear fusion

2010s – Expansion in Fusion, Medicine, and Sustainability

2020s and Future – Toward Practical Fusion and Sustainability

• 2010 - Developed plasma microfluidic devices integrating non-thermal plasmas for chemical analysis and biomedical diagnostics. [1]

• 2010 - National Ignition Facility (NIF) optimized target design and laser parameters for fusion ignition experiments.
• 2013 - China's EAST tokamak test reactor achieved a record confinement time of 30 seconds for plasma in the high-confinement mode. [2]
• 2014 - NIF Achieves Net Energy Gain in Fusion Reactions. [2]
• 2015 - Wendelstein 7-X stellarator produces its first plasma, advancing alternative fusion reactor designs. [2]
• 2017 - EAST tokamak achieves 70 million degrees Celsius plasma for over 1000 seconds.
• 2017 - EAST tokamak set a world record with a 101.2-second steady-state high confinement plasma. [2]
• 2017 - Cold plasma used in dermatology, wound healing, and disinfection, demonstrating significant potential in medical applications.
• 2018 - Commonwealth Fusion Systems was established to develop the SPARC tokamak for net energy gain in fusion. [3]
• 2019 - The UK initiated the STEP program to design a spherical tokamak fusion facility. [2]

[1] Enabling Batch and Microfluidic non-thermal plasma Chemistry

[2] Timeline of Nuclear Fusion

[3] History of nuclear fusion

2020s and Future – Toward Practical Fusion and Sustainability

• 2020 - Imperial College London researchers emphasized the transformative potential of big data and AI in plasma physics research. [1]
• 2021 - Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory identified ten unique phases of magnetized plasma, aiding fusion research. [2]

• 2021 - NIF achieves a burning plasma where fusion reactions significantly contribute to plasma heating. [3]
• 2022 - JET produces 59 megajoules of fusion energy over five seconds, more than doubling its previous record. [4]
• 2022 - Plasma medicine research accelerates, proving effectiveness in cancer treatment and non-invasive surgery.
• 2023 - Proton-boron fusion achieved via magnetic confinement, a step toward aneutronic fusion power generation.[5]
• 2024 - Plasma catalysis is applied for sustainable jet fuel production, achieving an 87% liquid oil yield with methane-based processing.
• 2024 - Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory researchers built a stellarator using permanent magnets, simplifying fusion device design. [6]

• 2025 - University of Seville, The Small Aspect Ratio Tokamak (SMART) generated and maintained plasma at 10 million degrees Celsius for a record duration. [7]
• 2025 - The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) achieved a steady-state operation for 1,066 seconds. [8]

[1] Imperial College London

[2] Phys.org

[3] Nature: How Researchers Achieved Burning Plasma Regime at NIF

[4] Major breakthrough on nuclear fusion energy

[5] Proton-boron fusion

[6] PPPL

[7] El Pais

[8] New York Post